Regulation of peyote (Lophophora williamsii: Cactaceae) in the U.S.A: A historical victory of religion and politics over science and medicine
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17348/jbrit.v11.i1.1146Keywords:
Lophophora williamsii, peyote, religion, drug prohibition, American Indian culture, cannabisAbstract
The peyote cactus, Lophophora williamsii, is presently classified as a Schedule 1 Controlled Substance in the USA, with an exemption for use as a sacrament in bona fide religious ceremonies of the Native American Church (NAC). Any botanist or other researcher seeking to work with peyote or any of its alkaloids, must com-ply with applicable (nontrivial) regulatory requirements. This paper presents an examination of the prohibition efforts that paved the way for current peyote regulation, accompanied by documentation of the religion-based political origins of such efforts, which involved the "acculturation" of Native Americans (i.e., the destruction of American Indian cultures). We also look at the historical emergence of a nationally organized and coordinated effort by missionaries and other prohibitionists to sell a federal anti-peyote law to Congress, which manifested itself repeatedly over a period of more than fifty years, before finally realizing success in the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. In view of ongoing changes in the legal/regulatory status of Cannabis sp. (another Schedule 1 plant that was targeted for illegality during the prohibitionists' rise to political predominance), we compare and contrast the two plants with speculation on peyote’s future.
References
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Hall, R.D. 1920. Peyote. Home Mission Monthly 34(4):89.
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Sells, C. 1920. Peyote. Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. P. 20.
Seymour, G. 1916. Peyote worship: An Indian cult and a powerful drug. The Red Man 8(10):341–351.
Stewart, O.C. 1987. Peyote religion: A history. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, U.S.A.
Terry, M., K.L. Steelman, T. Guilderson, P. Dering, & M.W. Rowe. 2006. Lower Pecos and Coahuila peyote: New radiocarbon dates. J. Archaeol. Sci. 33:1017–1021.
Tranter, C.L. 1942. Peyote: New dope menace. PIC Magazine. Street & Smith, New York, U.S.A. Pp. 6–9.
U.S. Congress. 1918. Bill for prohibition of use of peyote. H.R. 2614. 65th Congress. Report 560.
U.S. Congress. 1921. House debate on peyote legislation. Congressional Record, 4681–4691. [Comments and letters submitted by Representative Carl Hayden are on pages 4681–4682.]
U.S. Congress. 1929. Porter Narcotic Farm Act (P.L. 70–672, 45 Stat. 1085) [See chapter 82.]
U.S. Congress. 1937. Documents on Peyote. Part 1. US Senate SB–1399.
U.S. Congress. 1963. Constitutional Rights of the American Indian. Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights of the American Indian.
U.S. Congress. 1970. Controlled Substances Act (CSA). (P.L. 91–513, 84 Stat. 1242).
U.S. Congress. 1994. American Indian Religious Freedom Act, as Amended. (P.L. 103–344) [H.R. 4230].
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Anonymous. 1916. The peyote evil. The Steamboat Pilot (July 5). P. 2.
Anslinger, H.J. 1937. Hearing on the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937, Statement of H.J. Anslinger (http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/t10a.htm) & Additional statement of H.J. Anslinger , Commissioner of Narcotics (http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/anslng1.htm.)
Anslinger, H.J. & C.R. Cooper. 1937. Marijuana: Assassin of youth. Amer. Mag. 124:19–20, 150–153.
Bacon, F. 1620. Aphorism 49. Novum Organum, Book 1. Joannum Billium Typographum Regium, London, U.K.
Bentel, D.J. & D.E. Smith 1971. Drug abuse in combat: The crisis of drugs and addiction among American troops in Vietnam. J. Psychedelic Drugs 4(1):23–30.
Carstairs, S.D. & F.L. Cantrell. 2010. Peyote and mescaline exposures: A 12-year review of a statewide poison center database. Clin. Toxicol. 48:350–353.
Committee on the Health Effects of Marijuana. 2017. The health effects of Cannabis and cannabinoids: The current state of evidence and recommendations for research. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (PDF is available at http://www.nap.edu/24625.)
Davis, J.H. 1961. Peyote: America’s baffling sex button. Escape to Adventure (May) 14–15, 60, 62–64.
Drug Enforcement Administration, 2015. DEA drug info, drug scheduling. www.dea.gov/druginfo/ds.shtml, accessed 18 September 2015. [or www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/21cfr/21usc/812.htm][2/27/17]
Dylan, B. 1973. Dylan, Bob. Writings and drawings. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, U.S.A. Pp. 205, 212–213.
Franco-Molina, M., R. Gomez-Flores, P. Tamez-Guerra, R. Tamez-Guerra, L. Castillo-Leon, & C. Rodriguez-Padilla. 2003. In vitro immunopotentiating properties and tumour cell toxicity induced by Lophophora williamsii (peyote cactus) methanolic extract. Phytotherapy Res. 17(9):1076–1081.
Hall, R.D. 1920. Peyote. Home Mission Monthly 34(4):89.
Halpern, J.H., A.R. Sherwood, J.I. Hudson, D. Yurgelun-Todd, & H.G. Pope Jr. 2005. Psychological and cognitive effects of long-term peyote use among Native Americans. Biol. Psychiatry 58:624–631.
Haskell Institute. 1917. Peyote. The Indian Leader 21(13):18–19.
Hernández, F. 1628 [1577]. Rerum medicarum Novae Hispaniae thesaurus, sue (nova) plantarum, animalium, mineralium Mexicanorum historia. Mascardi, Rome, Italy.
Huxley, A. 1954. The doors of perception. Chatto & Windus, London, U.K.
Johnson, W.E. 1912. History, use and effects of peyote. Indian School J. 12:239–242, 289–293.
Kalam, M.A., M.T. Klein, D. Hulsey, K. Trout, P. Daley, & M. Terry 2013. A preliminary report of mescaline concentrations in small regrowth crowns vs. mature crowns of Lophophora williamsii (Cactaceae): Cultural, economic and conservation implications. J. Bot. Res. Inst. Texas 7(1):435–440.
Kerouac, J. 1957. On the road. Viking Press, New York, NY, U.S.A.
Krebs, T.S. & P.-Ø. Johansen. 2013. Over 30 million psychedelic users in the United States. F1000Research 2:98. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.2-98.v1.
NACNA 1993. Resolution 6-19-93A regarding Title II of DEA S. 1021 “Traditional use of peyote.” 44th Annual Conference of the Native American Church of North America, 18–20 June, New Town, North Dakota, U.S.A.
Nagel, L.M. 2001. Proposed changes in DEA's peyote regulation. In litt., 18 Dec 2001.
Parker, A.C. 1917. The perils of peyote. Amer. Indian Mag. 5(1):12–13.
Recovery.org. http://www.recovery.org/topics/choosing-the-best-inpatient-peyote-recovery-center/ Accessed online 19 September 2015.
Robbins, T. 1971. Another Roadside Attraction. Random House, New York, U.S.A.
Ruck, C.A.P., J. Bigwood, D. Staples, J. Ott, & R.G. Wasson. 1979. Entheogens. J. Psychedelic Drugs 11(1–2):145–146.
Schultes, R.E. 1938. The appeal of peyote (Lophophora Williamsii) as a medicine. Amer. Anthropol. 40:698–715.
Schultes, R.E. 1940. The aboriginal therapeutic uses of Lophophora Williamsii. Cactus Succ. J. 12:177–181.
Sahagun, B. de. 1829 [1582]. Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España. Carlos Maria de Bustamante, Mexico City, Mexico.
Sells, C. 1920. Peyote. Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. P. 20.
Seymour, G. 1916. Peyote worship: An Indian cult and a powerful drug. The Red Man 8(10):341–351.
Stewart, O.C. 1987. Peyote religion: A history. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, U.S.A.
Terry, M., K.L. Steelman, T. Guilderson, P. Dering, & M.W. Rowe. 2006. Lower Pecos and Coahuila peyote: New radiocarbon dates. J. Archaeol. Sci. 33:1017–1021.
Tranter, C.L. 1942. Peyote: New dope menace. PIC Magazine. Street & Smith, New York, U.S.A. Pp. 6–9.
U.S. Congress. 1918. Bill for prohibition of use of peyote. H.R. 2614. 65th Congress. Report 560.
U.S. Congress. 1921. House debate on peyote legislation. Congressional Record, 4681–4691. [Comments and letters submitted by Representative Carl Hayden are on pages 4681–4682.]
U.S. Congress. 1929. Porter Narcotic Farm Act (P.L. 70–672, 45 Stat. 1085) [See chapter 82.]
U.S. Congress. 1937. Documents on Peyote. Part 1. US Senate SB–1399.
U.S. Congress. 1963. Constitutional Rights of the American Indian. Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights of the American Indian.
U.S. Congress. 1970. Controlled Substances Act (CSA). (P.L. 91–513, 84 Stat. 1242).
U.S. Congress. 1994. American Indian Religious Freedom Act, as Amended. (P.L. 103–344) [H.R. 4230].
Williams, R.C. 1945. Letter to John Collier. (Retrieved from the Shulgin Archives, Lafayette, California, U.S.A.)
Zuo, Z.-y., X.-t. Song, Zhang, X.-l., Shi, & B.-k. Zhou. 2011. Inhibitory and apoptosis-inducing effects of Lophophora williamsii extracts on HeLa cells. J. Med. Pl. Res. 5(8):1305–1312.
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Published
2017-07-24
How to Cite
Terry, M. ., & Trout, K. . (2017). Regulation of peyote (Lophophora williamsii: Cactaceae) in the U.S.A: A historical victory of religion and politics over science and medicine. Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas, 11(1), 147–156. https://doi.org/10.17348/jbrit.v11.i1.1146
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