Regulation of peyote (Lophophora williamsii: Cactaceae) in the U.S.A: A historical victory of religion and politics over science and medicine
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17348/jbrit.v11.i1.1146Palabras clave:
Lophophora williamsii, peyote, religion, drug prohibition, American Indian culture, cannabisResumen
El cactus peyote, Lophophora williamsii, actualmente se clasifica como una Sustancia Controlada en la Lista 1 en los EEUU, con una exención para su uso como sacramento en ceremonios religiosos auténticos de la Native American Church. Cualquier botánico u otro investigador científico quien quiera hacer investigaciones con Lophophora williamsii, tiene que cumplir con los (no triviales) requisitos reglamentarios aplicables. Este artículo presenta una examinación de algunos de los esfuerzos prohibicionistos que allanaron el camino para las reglamentaciones actuales del peyote, acompañadas por documentación del origen político-religióso de tales esfuerzos, los cuales involucraron la "aculturación" de los Americanos Nativos (es decir, la destrucción de las culturas de los Americanos Nativos). También le damos una mirada a la aparición histórica de un esfuerzo organizado al nivel nacional y coordinado por misionarios y otros prohibicionistas, cuyo objectivo era covencer al Congreso de los EEUU de que debía promulgarse legislación anti-peyote, lo cual se manifestó repetidamente durante un periodo de más de 50 años, hasta que finalmente tuvieron éxito en la forma del Controlled Substances Act de 1970. En vista de los cambios en curso en el estado legal/regulador de Cannabis sp. (otra planta de la Lista 1 que fue objeto de ilegalidad durante el ascenso de los prohibicionistas al predominio político), comparamos y contrastamos las dos plantas con un ojo hacia el futuro especulativo del peyote.
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Bentel, D.J. & D.E. Smith 1971. Drug abuse in combat: The crisis of drugs and addiction among American troops in Vietnam. J. Psychedelic Drugs 4(1):23–30.
Carstairs, S.D. & F.L. Cantrell. 2010. Peyote and mescaline exposures: A 12-year review of a statewide poison center database. Clin. Toxicol. 48:350–353.
Committee on the Health Effects of Marijuana. 2017. The health effects of Cannabis and cannabinoids: The current state of evidence and recommendations for research. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (PDF is available at http://www.nap.edu/24625.)
Davis, J.H. 1961. Peyote: America’s baffling sex button. Escape to Adventure (May) 14–15, 60, 62–64.
Drug Enforcement Administration, 2015. DEA drug info, drug scheduling. www.dea.gov/druginfo/ds.shtml, accessed 18 September 2015. [or www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/21cfr/21usc/812.htm][2/27/17]
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Franco-Molina, M., R. Gomez-Flores, P. Tamez-Guerra, R. Tamez-Guerra, L. Castillo-Leon, & C. Rodriguez-Padilla. 2003. In vitro immunopotentiating properties and tumour cell toxicity induced by Lophophora williamsii (peyote cactus) methanolic extract. Phytotherapy Res. 17(9):1076–1081.
Hall, R.D. 1920. Peyote. Home Mission Monthly 34(4):89.
Halpern, J.H., A.R. Sherwood, J.I. Hudson, D. Yurgelun-Todd, & H.G. Pope Jr. 2005. Psychological and cognitive effects of long-term peyote use among Native Americans. Biol. Psychiatry 58:624–631.
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Parker, A.C. 1917. The perils of peyote. Amer. Indian Mag. 5(1):12–13.
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Schultes, R.E. 1938. The appeal of peyote (Lophophora Williamsii) as a medicine. Amer. Anthropol. 40:698–715.
Schultes, R.E. 1940. The aboriginal therapeutic uses of Lophophora Williamsii. Cactus Succ. J. 12:177–181.
Sahagun, B. de. 1829 [1582]. Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España. Carlos Maria de Bustamante, Mexico City, Mexico.
Sells, C. 1920. Peyote. Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. P. 20.
Seymour, G. 1916. Peyote worship: An Indian cult and a powerful drug. The Red Man 8(10):341–351.
Stewart, O.C. 1987. Peyote religion: A history. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, U.S.A.
Terry, M., K.L. Steelman, T. Guilderson, P. Dering, & M.W. Rowe. 2006. Lower Pecos and Coahuila peyote: New radiocarbon dates. J. Archaeol. Sci. 33:1017–1021.
Tranter, C.L. 1942. Peyote: New dope menace. PIC Magazine. Street & Smith, New York, U.S.A. Pp. 6–9.
U.S. Congress. 1918. Bill for prohibition of use of peyote. H.R. 2614. 65th Congress. Report 560.
U.S. Congress. 1921. House debate on peyote legislation. Congressional Record, 4681–4691. [Comments and letters submitted by Representative Carl Hayden are on pages 4681–4682.]
U.S. Congress. 1929. Porter Narcotic Farm Act (P.L. 70–672, 45 Stat. 1085) [See chapter 82.]
U.S. Congress. 1937. Documents on Peyote. Part 1. US Senate SB–1399.
U.S. Congress. 1963. Constitutional Rights of the American Indian. Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights of the American Indian.
U.S. Congress. 1970. Controlled Substances Act (CSA). (P.L. 91–513, 84 Stat. 1242).
U.S. Congress. 1994. American Indian Religious Freedom Act, as Amended. (P.L. 103–344) [H.R. 4230].
Williams, R.C. 1945. Letter to John Collier. (Retrieved from the Shulgin Archives, Lafayette, California, U.S.A.)
Zuo, Z.-y., X.-t. Song, Zhang, X.-l., Shi, & B.-k. Zhou. 2011. Inhibitory and apoptosis-inducing effects of Lophophora williamsii extracts on HeLa cells. J. Med. Pl. Res. 5(8):1305–1312.
Anonymous. 1916. The peyote evil. The Steamboat Pilot (July 5). P. 2.
Anslinger, H.J. 1937. Hearing on the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937, Statement of H.J. Anslinger (http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/t10a.htm) & Additional statement of H.J. Anslinger , Commissioner of Narcotics (http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/anslng1.htm.)
Anslinger, H.J. & C.R. Cooper. 1937. Marijuana: Assassin of youth. Amer. Mag. 124:19–20, 150–153.
Bacon, F. 1620. Aphorism 49. Novum Organum, Book 1. Joannum Billium Typographum Regium, London, U.K.
Bentel, D.J. & D.E. Smith 1971. Drug abuse in combat: The crisis of drugs and addiction among American troops in Vietnam. J. Psychedelic Drugs 4(1):23–30.
Carstairs, S.D. & F.L. Cantrell. 2010. Peyote and mescaline exposures: A 12-year review of a statewide poison center database. Clin. Toxicol. 48:350–353.
Committee on the Health Effects of Marijuana. 2017. The health effects of Cannabis and cannabinoids: The current state of evidence and recommendations for research. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (PDF is available at http://www.nap.edu/24625.)
Davis, J.H. 1961. Peyote: America’s baffling sex button. Escape to Adventure (May) 14–15, 60, 62–64.
Drug Enforcement Administration, 2015. DEA drug info, drug scheduling. www.dea.gov/druginfo/ds.shtml, accessed 18 September 2015. [or www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/21cfr/21usc/812.htm][2/27/17]
Dylan, B. 1973. Dylan, Bob. Writings and drawings. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, U.S.A. Pp. 205, 212–213.
Franco-Molina, M., R. Gomez-Flores, P. Tamez-Guerra, R. Tamez-Guerra, L. Castillo-Leon, & C. Rodriguez-Padilla. 2003. In vitro immunopotentiating properties and tumour cell toxicity induced by Lophophora williamsii (peyote cactus) methanolic extract. Phytotherapy Res. 17(9):1076–1081.
Hall, R.D. 1920. Peyote. Home Mission Monthly 34(4):89.
Halpern, J.H., A.R. Sherwood, J.I. Hudson, D. Yurgelun-Todd, & H.G. Pope Jr. 2005. Psychological and cognitive effects of long-term peyote use among Native Americans. Biol. Psychiatry 58:624–631.
Haskell Institute. 1917. Peyote. The Indian Leader 21(13):18–19.
Hernández, F. 1628 [1577]. Rerum medicarum Novae Hispaniae thesaurus, sue (nova) plantarum, animalium, mineralium Mexicanorum historia. Mascardi, Rome, Italy.
Huxley, A. 1954. The doors of perception. Chatto & Windus, London, U.K.
Johnson, W.E. 1912. History, use and effects of peyote. Indian School J. 12:239–242, 289–293.
Kalam, M.A., M.T. Klein, D. Hulsey, K. Trout, P. Daley, & M. Terry 2013. A preliminary report of mescaline concentrations in small regrowth crowns vs. mature crowns of Lophophora williamsii (Cactaceae): Cultural, economic and conservation implications. J. Bot. Res. Inst. Texas 7(1):435–440.
Kerouac, J. 1957. On the road. Viking Press, New York, NY, U.S.A.
Krebs, T.S. & P.-Ø. Johansen. 2013. Over 30 million psychedelic users in the United States. F1000Research 2:98. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.2-98.v1.
NACNA 1993. Resolution 6-19-93A regarding Title II of DEA S. 1021 “Traditional use of peyote.” 44th Annual Conference of the Native American Church of North America, 18–20 June, New Town, North Dakota, U.S.A.
Nagel, L.M. 2001. Proposed changes in DEA's peyote regulation. In litt., 18 Dec 2001.
Parker, A.C. 1917. The perils of peyote. Amer. Indian Mag. 5(1):12–13.
Recovery.org. http://www.recovery.org/topics/choosing-the-best-inpatient-peyote-recovery-center/ Accessed online 19 September 2015.
Robbins, T. 1971. Another Roadside Attraction. Random House, New York, U.S.A.
Ruck, C.A.P., J. Bigwood, D. Staples, J. Ott, & R.G. Wasson. 1979. Entheogens. J. Psychedelic Drugs 11(1–2):145–146.
Schultes, R.E. 1938. The appeal of peyote (Lophophora Williamsii) as a medicine. Amer. Anthropol. 40:698–715.
Schultes, R.E. 1940. The aboriginal therapeutic uses of Lophophora Williamsii. Cactus Succ. J. 12:177–181.
Sahagun, B. de. 1829 [1582]. Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España. Carlos Maria de Bustamante, Mexico City, Mexico.
Sells, C. 1920. Peyote. Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. P. 20.
Seymour, G. 1916. Peyote worship: An Indian cult and a powerful drug. The Red Man 8(10):341–351.
Stewart, O.C. 1987. Peyote religion: A history. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, U.S.A.
Terry, M., K.L. Steelman, T. Guilderson, P. Dering, & M.W. Rowe. 2006. Lower Pecos and Coahuila peyote: New radiocarbon dates. J. Archaeol. Sci. 33:1017–1021.
Tranter, C.L. 1942. Peyote: New dope menace. PIC Magazine. Street & Smith, New York, U.S.A. Pp. 6–9.
U.S. Congress. 1918. Bill for prohibition of use of peyote. H.R. 2614. 65th Congress. Report 560.
U.S. Congress. 1921. House debate on peyote legislation. Congressional Record, 4681–4691. [Comments and letters submitted by Representative Carl Hayden are on pages 4681–4682.]
U.S. Congress. 1929. Porter Narcotic Farm Act (P.L. 70–672, 45 Stat. 1085) [See chapter 82.]
U.S. Congress. 1937. Documents on Peyote. Part 1. US Senate SB–1399.
U.S. Congress. 1963. Constitutional Rights of the American Indian. Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights of the American Indian.
U.S. Congress. 1970. Controlled Substances Act (CSA). (P.L. 91–513, 84 Stat. 1242).
U.S. Congress. 1994. American Indian Religious Freedom Act, as Amended. (P.L. 103–344) [H.R. 4230].
Williams, R.C. 1945. Letter to John Collier. (Retrieved from the Shulgin Archives, Lafayette, California, U.S.A.)
Zuo, Z.-y., X.-t. Song, Zhang, X.-l., Shi, & B.-k. Zhou. 2011. Inhibitory and apoptosis-inducing effects of Lophophora williamsii extracts on HeLa cells. J. Med. Pl. Res. 5(8):1305–1312.
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2017-07-24
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Terry, M. ., & Trout, K. . (2017). Regulation of peyote (Lophophora williamsii: Cactaceae) in the U.S.A: A historical victory of religion and politics over science and medicine. Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas, 11(1), 147–156. https://doi.org/10.17348/jbrit.v11.i1.1146
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HISTORIA BOTANICA
