Vascular flora of the Outer Banks, North Carolina, U.S.A.
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17348/jbrit.v15.i2.1168Abstract
A complete catalogue of the vascular flora of the North Carolina Outer Banks is presented. Rarity, habitat, distribution within the Outer Banks, and earliest and latest specimens are given for each taxon. The flora contains 1020 species and infraspecific taxa, plus an additional 80 taxa that lack voucher specimens. Some 770 taxa are considered native; 250 non-native. Fifty-one taxa reach their northern range limit on the Outer Banks; 11 their southern limit. Fifty-five taxa are listed as rare in North Carolina; one of them also listed Threatened by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Twenty-four natural communities are described and assessed for vulnerabil-ity to sea level rise. Prior botanical research is listed chronologically.
Literaturhinweise
Atkinson, T.A. & H.E. List. 1978. Basic inventory and natural diversity summary of the Nags Head Woods, Dare County, North Carolina. Unpublished report to the North Carolina Nature Conservancy, Durham, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Au, S.-F. 1969. Vegetation and ecological processes on Shackleford Bank, North Carolina. Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Barkworth, M.E., K.M. Capels, S. Long, L.K. Anderton, & M.B. Piep, eds. 2003 and 2007. Magnioliophyta: Commelinidae (in part): Poaceae, parts 1 and 2. Flora of North America. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Beal, E.O. 1977. A manual of marsh and aquatic plants of North Carolina, with habitat data. North Carolina Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 247:1–298.
Bellis, V.J. 1995. Ecology of maritime forests of the southern Atlantic coast: A community profile. National Biological Service, U.S. Dept. of Interior, Washington, DC., U.S.A.
Berenyi, N.M. 1966. Soil productivity factors on the Outer Banks of North Carolina. Ph.D. diss., North Carolina State Univ., Raleigh, North Carolina, U.S.A..
Berman, M. & H. Berquist. 2007. Coastal maritime forests in Virginia--delineation and distribution. Virginia Coastal Zone Mgmt. Program, Virginia Dept. of Environmental Quality, Richmond, Virginia, U.S.A.
Beyer, F. 1991. North Carolina; the years before man. A geologic history. Carolina Academic Press, Durham, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Bland, J.A. 1990. The geomorphology and vegetation of Bear Island, Hammocks Beach State Park, North Carolina. M.S. thesis, Univ. North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, U.S.A.
Blomquist, H.L. 1948. The grasses of North Carolina. Duke Univ. Press, Durham, North Carolina, U.S.A..
Blonder, B. & R. Stalter. 1992. Vascular plant species list: Nags Head Woods Preserve. North Carolina Nature Conservancy, Durham, U.S.A.
Bordeau, P.F. & H.J. Oosting. 1959. The maritime live oak forest in North Carolina. Ecology 40:148–152.
Braswell, A.L. 1988. A survey of the amphibians and reptiles of Nags Head Woods Ecological Preserve. A.S.B. Bull. 35:199–217.
Bratton, S.P. & K. Davison. 1987. Disturbance and succession in Buxton Woods, Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Castanea 52(3):166–179.
Britton, N.L. & A. Brown. 1913. An illustrated flora of the northern United States, Canada, and the British Possesions. 3 vols. Scribner's Son, New York, New York, U.S.A..
Brooks, R.E. & S.E. Clemants. 2000. Magnoliophyta (in part): Juncus. Flora of North America. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Brouillet, L., J.C. Semple, G.A. Allen, K.L. Chambers, & S.D. Sundberg. 2006. Magnioliophyta: Asteridae, part 6: Symphyotrichum. Flora of North America. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Brown, C.A. 1959. Vegetation of the Outer Banks of North Carolina. Louisiana State Univ. Press, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, U.S.A.
Brown, C.W. 1983. A palynological study of the peat layers from Jennette Sedge, North Carolina. M.A. Thesis, Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Brown. P.M. 2001. Spiranthes sylvatica P.M. Brown, a new species of ladies'-tresses from the southeastern United States. N. Amer. Native Orchid J. 7:193–205.
Burk, C.J. 1961. A floristic study of the Outer Banks of North Carolina. Ph.D. diss., Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, U.S.A.
Burk, C.J. 1961. A botanical reconnaisance of Portsmouth Island, NC. J. ELisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 77(1):72–73.
Burk, C.J. 1961. Distribution records and range extensions from the NC Outer Banks. Castanea 26(4):138–139.
Burk, C.J. 1961. Environmental variation in Heterotheca subaxillaris. Rhodora 62(753):243–246.
Burk, C.J. 1962. The Outer Banks of North Carolina: a floristic interpretation. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 78:21–28.
Burk, C.J. & S.D. Lauermann. 1975. Development of vegetation on Portsmouth Island, North Carolina: fourteen years of change. Dept. Biol. Sci., Smith College, Northampton, MA, U.S.A. [unpublished report]
Burk, C.J., H.A. Curran, & T. M. Czerniak. 1981. Dunes and vegetation: natural recovery on a damaged barrier island. Shore and Beach 49:21–25.
Burney, D.A. & L.P. Burney. 1987. Recent paleoecology of Nags Head Woods on the North Carolina Outer Banks. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 114:156–168.
Caulkins, D.B. & R. Wyatt. 1990. Variation and taxonomy of Phytolacca americana and P. rigida in the southeastern United States. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 117:357–367.
Clark, R.C., A. Krings, J.M. Stucky, & H.J. Kleiss. 2016. Guide to the vascular flora of Kitty Hawk Woods. Bot. Misc. 45., Botanical Research Institute of Texas, Fort Worth, Texas, U.S.A.
Coastal Zone Resources, Inc. 1974. Report on North Whalehead Beach Project to U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, proposed Currituck Outer Banks National Wildlife Refuge.
Conner, W.H., W.D. Mixon II, & G.W. Wood. 2005. Maritime forest habitat dynamics on Bulls Island, Cape Romain National Wildlife Refuge, SC, following Hurricane Hugo. Forest Ecol. Managem. 212 (2005):127–134.
Cooper, S. 1988. Breeding birds of Nags Head Woods, Dare County, North Carolina. A.S.B. Bull. 35:218–222.
Cronquist, A. 1980. Vascular flora of the southeastern United States: Vol. 1, Asteraceae. Univ. of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Crutchfield, P.J. 1964. Taxa collected from Roanoke Island new to the flora of North Carolina. Castanea 29:129–137.
Danin, A. & L.C. Anderson. 1986. Distribution of Portulaca oleracea L. (Portulacaceae) subspecies in Florida. Sida 11:318–324.
Davidson-Arnot, R. 2010. Introduction to coastal processes and geomorphology. Cambridge, U.K..
Davis Jr., R.A. 1994. Barrier island systems--a geologic overview. In: R.A. Davis Jr., ed. Geology of Holocene barrier island systems. Springer-Verlag, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Defeo, O., A. McLachlan, D.S. Shoeman, T.A. Schlacher, J. Dugan, A. Jones, M. Lastra, & F. Scapini. 2009. Threats to sandy beach ecosystems: a review. Estuarine, Coastal Shelf Sci. 81:1–2.
Dickerson, T.J. 1978. Floristic survey and plant community descriptions of Bear Island (Hammocks Beach State Park), Onslow County, North Carolina. M.S. thesis, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, U.S.A.
Dunbar, G.S. 1958. Historical geography of the North Carolina Outer Banks. Louisiana State Univ. Press, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, U.S.A.
Duncan, W.H. 1967. Woody vines of the southeastern states. Sida 3:1–76.
Duncan, W.H. & M.B. Duncan. 1987. Seaside plants of the Gulf and Atlantic coasts. Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington, DC, U.S.A.
Dunes of Dare Garden Club. 1980. Wildflowers of the Outer Banks. Univ. of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Engels, W. 1942. Vertebrate fauna of North Carolina coastal islands. I. Ocracoke Island. Amer. Midl. Nat. 28:278–304.
Engels, W. 1952. Vertebrate fauna of North Carolina coastal islands. II. Shackleford Bank. Amer. Midl. Nat. 47:702–742.
Faucette, A.L., A. Krings, & D.L. Lindbo. 2020. Guide to the vascular flora of Buxton Woods, Dare County, North Carolina. Sida, Bot. Misc. 54. Botanical Research Institute of Texas, Fort Worth, Texas, U.S.A.
Ferguson, R.L., B.T. Pawlak, & L.L. Wood. 1993. Flowering of the seagrass Halodule wrightii in North Carolina, USA. Aquatic Bot. 46:91–98.
Ferguson, R.L., J.A. Rivera, & L.L. Wood. 1989. Submerged aquatic vegetation in the Albemarle-Pamlico estuarine system. Ann. Report to the EPA and NC Albemarle- Pamlico Estuarine Study, Project No. 88-10.
Fisher, J.J. 1967. Development pattern of relict beach ridges, Outer Banks barrier chain, North Carolina. Ph.D. diss., Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, U.S.A.
Flora North America Editorial Committee, eds. 2002. Magnioliophyta: Commelinidae (in part): Cyperaceae. Flora of North America. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Flora North America Editorial Committee, eds. 2006. Magnioliophyta: Asteridae, part 6: Asteraceae, parts 1–3. Flora of North America. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Frank, A.R. 2020. Gaillardia pulchella is not native to the eastern U.S.A. J. Bot. Res. Inst. Texas 124(2):205–208.
Frost, C.C., H.E. LeGrand, Jr., & J.O. Fussell, III. 1992. Regional inventory for critical natural areas, wetland ecosystems, and endangered species habitats of the Albemarle-Pamlico estuarine region: Phase 2 (Beaufort, Carteret, Craven, Hyde, Jones, Pamlico, and Pitt counties). North Carolina Natural Heritage Program, Raleigh, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Funderburg, J.B. & D.S. Lee. 1978. Preliminary list of the vertebrate fauna of Nag's Head Woods, Dare County, North Carolina. North Carolina State Museum of Natural History, Raleigh, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Fussell, J.O. III. A birder's guide to coastal North Carolina. Univ. North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Gaddy, L.L. 1985. Rare, endangered, threatened, and exotic plants of the Cape Hatteras National Seashore. National Park Service, Coop. Park Studies Unit Tech. Report No. 18.
Godfrey, P.J. & M.M. Godfrey. 1976. Barrier island ecology of Cape Lookout National Seashore and vicinity, North Carolina. U.S. Nat. Park Serv. Monogr. Ser. 9.
Godfrey, R.K. 1988. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of northern Florida and adjacent Georgia and Alabama. Univ. Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia, U.S.A.
Godfrey, R.K. & J.W. Wooten. 1979 and 1981. Aquatic and wetland plants of southeastern United States. Vols. 1 and 2. Univ. Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia, U.S.A.
Graetz, K.E. 1973. Seacoast plants of the Carolinas: for conservation and beautification. Sea Grant Publications, Raleigh, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Grand, L.F. & C.S. Vernia. 2002. A preliminary checklist of fungi in the Nags Head Woods maritime forest in North Carolina. Castanea 67:324–328.
Gregory, R., J. Arval, & L.R. Gerber. 2013. Structuring decisions for managing threatened and endangered species in a changing climate. Conserv. Biol. 27:1212–1221.
Griggs, G. 2017. Coasts in Crisis. A Global Challenge. Univ. California Press, Oakland, California, U.S.A.
Gul, M.A. & B.D. Griffen. 2018. A reliable bioindicator of anthropogenic impact on the coast of South Carolina. Southeastern Nat. 17:357–364.
Haag, W.G. 1958. The archaeology of coastal North Carolina. Louisiana State Univ. Press, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, U.S.A.
Haines, A. 2011. Flora Novae Angliae. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.A.
Hancock, T.E. & P.E. Hosier. 2003. Ecology of the threatened species Amaranthus pumilus Rafinesque. Castanea 68:236–244.
Hill, S.R. 1986. An annotated checklist of the vascular flora of Assateague Island (Maryland & Virginia). Castanea 51:265–305.
Hinde, H.P. 1954. The vertical distribution of salt marsh phanerogams in relation to tide levels. Ecol. Monogr. 24:209–225.
Hitchcock, A.S. (rev. A. Chase). 1951. Manual of the grasses of the United States. United States Dept. of Agr., Washington, DC, U.S.A.
Hobbs, C.H., C.B. Landry, & J.E. Perry. 2008. Assessing anthropogenic and natural impacts on Ghost Crabs (Ocypod quadrata) at Cape Hatteras National Seashore, North Carolina. J. Coastal Res. 24:1450–1458.
Holmes, W.C. 2002. Magnoliophyta: Liliidae: Liliales: Smilax. Flora of North America. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Holmgren, N.H., P.K. Holmgren, R.A. Jess, K.M. McCauley, & L. Vogl. 1998. The illustrated companion to Gleason and Cronquists's manual. New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York, U.S.A.
Hosier, P.E. 1973. The effects of oceanic overwash on the vegetation of Core and Shackleford Banks, North Carolina. Ph.D diss. Duke Univ., Durham, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Hosier, P.E. 2018. Seacoast Plants of the Carolinas. A new guide for plant identification and use in the coastal landscape. Univ. North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Hosier, P.E. & T.E. Eaton. 1980. The impact of vehicles on dunes and grassland vegetation on a southeastern North Carolina barrier beach. J. Applied Ecology 17:173–182.
Johnson, A. 1900. Notes on the flora of the banks and sounds at Beaufort, North Carolina. Bot. Gaz. 30:405–410.
Johnson, S.R. 1992. Observations on populations of Chamaesyce polygonifolia Small and C. ingallsii Small (Euphorbia ammannioides H.B.K.) on barrier islands of Virginia and North Carolina. Castanea 57:291–292.
Kearney, T.H. 1900. The plant covering of Ocracoke Island: A study in the ecology of the North Carolina strand vegetation. Contr. U.S. Natl. Herb. 5:261–319.
Kelly, L. 2006. The vascular flora of Huggin's Island, Onslow County, North Carolina. Castanea 71:295–311.
Kitty Hawk Management Plan. 1998. Report to Kitty Hawk Woods Conservation Working Group, Kitty Hawk. Unpublished document.
Kling, G.W. 1986. The physiochemistry of some dune ponds on the Outer Banks, North Carolina. Hydrobiologia 134:3–10.
Knapp, S., G.E. Barboza, L. Bohs, & T. Sarkinen. 2019. A revision of the Morelloid clade of Solanum L. (Solanaceae) in North and Central America and the Caribbean. PhytoKeys 123:1–144.
Knapp, W.M. & R.F.C. Naczi. 2008. Taxonomy, morphology, and geographic distribution of Juncus longii (Juncaceae). Syst. Bot. 33:685–694.
Krakow, G.A. 1991. Vascular plant checklist of Cape Lookout National Seashore, with information about rare taxa. Univ. of Georgia, Athens.
Kral, R. 1993. Coniferophyta: Pinaceae: Pinus. Flora of North America, vol 2. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Krings, A. 2002a. Additions to the flora of Nags Head Woods (Dare County, North Carolina) and the Outer Banks of North Carolina. Sida 20:839–843.
Krings, A. 2002b. The Nags Head Woods collections of the National Park Service Cape Hatteras National Seashore herbarium (CAHA). J. North Carolina Acad. Sci. 118:145–155.
Krings, A. 2005. The flora of Nags Head Woods and the Outer Banks of North Carolina: additions and corrections. J. North Carolina Acad. Sci. 121:111–116.
Krings, A. 2010. Manual of the vascular flora of Nags Head Woods, Outer Banks, North Carolina. Mem. New York Bot. Gard., Bronx, New York, U.S.A.
Krombein, K.V. 1949. An annotated list of wasps from Nags Head and the Kill Devil Hills. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 65:262–272.
Lamont, E.E. & R. Stalter. 2007. Orchids of Atlantic Coast Barrier Islands from North Carolina to New York. J. Torrey Bot. Soc. 134:540–551.
LeBlond, R.J. 2000. Solidago villosicarpa (Asteraceae: Astereae), a rare new southeastern coastal plain endemic. Sida 19:291–300.
LeBlond, R.J. 2006. Botanical and natural community surveys of Ocracoke Island, Hyde County, North Carolina. North Carolina Natural Heritage Program, Raleigh, U.S.A.
LeBlond, R.J. 2017. Analysis of a W.W. Ashe species of Panicum and its transfer to Dichanthelium sect. Angustifolia. J. Bot. Res. Inst. Texas 11:314–316.
Lendemer, J.C. 2016. Trichothelium americanum, a new species widespread in the coastal plain of southeastern North America. J. Torrey Bot. Soc. 143:199–206.
Lendemer, J.C. & J.L. Allen. 2014. Lichen biodoversity under threat from sea-level rise in the Atlantic coastal plain. BioScience 20:1–9.
Lendemer, J.C. & R.C. Harris. 2014. Seven new species of Graphidaceae (Lichenized Ascomycetes) from the Coastal Plain of southeastern North America. Phytotaxa 189(1):153–175.
Levy, G.F. 1976. Vegetative study at the Duck Field Research Facility, Duck, North Carolina. U.S. Army Corps of Engrs., Coastal Engineering Res. Ctr. Misc. Rpt. No. 76-6, Ft. Belvoir, VA, U.S.A.
Lewis, I.F. 1917. The vegetation of Shackleford Bank, Carteret Co. North Carolina, North Carolina Geol. Survey, Economic Paper 46.
Lopazanski, M.J., J.P. Evans, & R.E. Shaw. 1988. An Assessment of Maritime Forest Resources on the North Carolina Coast. Report to North Carolina Division of Coastal Management.
Luteyn, J.L. 1976. Revision of Limonium (Plumbaginaceae) in eastern North America. Brittonia 28:303–317.
Malcolm, J.R., A. Markham, R.P. Neilson, & M. Garaci. 2002. Estimated migration rates under scenarios of global climate change. J. Biogeogr. 29:835–49.
Mallinson, D.J., C.W. Smith, S. Mahan, S.J. Culver, & K. McDowell. 2011. Barrier island response to late Holocene climate events, North Carolina, USA. Quaternary Res. 76 (2011):46–57.
Matthews, J.F., D.W. Ketron, & S.F. Zane. 1993. The biology and taxonomy of the Portulaca oleracea L. (Portulacaceae) complex in North America. Rhodora 95:166–1283.
Mayes, C.H. & H.E. List. 1988. A symposium on interdune ponds in maritime forests. Nags Head Woods Ecological Preserve, North Carolina. A.S.B. Bull. 35:145–148.
McClelland, K.S. & A.S. Weakley. 2019. A new species of Trichostema (Lamiaceae: Ajugoideae) from barrier island systems of North and South Carolina. J. Bot. Res. Inst. Texas 13:108–117.
Menon, S., J. Soberon, X. Lee, & A.P. Townsend. 2010. Preliminary assessment of biodiversity consequences of sea level rise mediated by climate change. Biodivers. & Conservation 19:1599–1609.
Moorhead, K.K. & M.M. Brinson 1995. Response of wetlands to rising sea level in the lower coastal plain of North Carolina. Ecol. Applic. 5:261–271.
Moslow, T.F. & S.D. Heron. 1994. The Outer Banks of North Carolina. In: R.A. Davis Jr. (ed.). Geology of Holocene barrier island systems. Springer-Verlag, New York, New York, U.S.A.
NatureServe. 2010. NatureServe Explorer: an online encyclopedia of life http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/ Version 7.0, NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia, U.S.A.
North Carolina Natural Heritage Program Biennial Protection Plan: List of Significant Natural Heritage Areas. 2009. North Carolina Natural Heritage Program, Raleigh, North Carolina, U.S.A.
North Carolina State Parks. 2013. Vascular plant checklist, Jockey's Ridge State Park. NC Dept. of Parks and Recreation, Raleigh, U.S.A.
Nixon, K.C. 1997. Magnoliophyta: Magnoliidae and Hamamelidae: Quercus. Flora of North America. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A.
North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources. 1996. Final management plan for the Buxton Woods Component of the North Carolina Coastal Reserve. Report to the NCDENR, Division of Coastal Management, Unpublished document.
Odum, W.E. & J.W. Harvey. 1988. Barrier Island interdunal freshwater wetlands. ASB Bull. 35:149–155.
Oosting, H.J. 1954. Ecological processes and vegetation of the maritime strand in the southeastern United States. Bot. Rev. 20:226–262.
Oosting, H.J. & W.D. Billings. 1942. Factors affecting vegetation zonation on coastal dunes. Ecology 23:131–142.
Oosting, H.J. & P.E. Bourdeau. 1959. The maritime live oak forest in North Carolina. Ecology 40:148–152.
Otte, L.J., D.K.S. Atkinson, & T.A. Atkinson. 1984. Ecological inventory of a portion of the Nags Head Woods, Dare County, North Carolina. Unpublished report to the North Carolina Nature Conservancy, Durham, U.S.A.
Overton, M., W. Birkemeier, S. Benton, W. Cleary, T. Jarrett, C. Peterson, S.R. Riggs, S. Rogers, G. Rudolph, & E.J. Sciaudone. 2015. North Carolina Sea Level Rise Assessment Report, 2015 Update to the 2010 Report and 2012 Addendum. North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Management, Raleigh, NC, U.S.A.
Palmer, M.W., G.L. Wade, & P. Neal. 1995. Standards for writing floras. Bioscience 45:339–345.
Parlin, A.F., S.A. Dinkelacker, A. McCall, M.S. Gosselin, C. Mettey, & R. Tibbett. 2019. Temporal and spatial assessment of the maritime forest herpetofauna on a barrier island in North Carolina. S. E. Naturalist (Steuben) 18:430–440.
Perry, J.P. III & L.J. Musselman. 1994. Psilotum nudum new to North Carolina. Amer. Fern. J. 84:102–104.
Pilky, O.H., Jr., W.J. Neal, O.H. Pilkey, Sr., & S.R. Riggs. 1978. From Currituck to Calabash: living with North Carolina's barrier islands. Duke Univ. Press, Durham, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Pimental, et al. 2000. Environmental and economic costs of nonindigenous species in the United States. BioScience 50:53–65.
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, & C.R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. Univ. of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Rehder, A.H. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North America. Collier MacMillan, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Resource Management Staff. 1977. Preliminary resource inventory of the vertebrates and vascular plants of Cape Lookout National Seashore North Carolina. Management Report No. 22, Cape Lookout N.S., National Park Service, U.S.A.
Reznicek, A.A. 1993. Carex pumila (Cyperaceae) in North America. Castanea 58:220–224.
Riggs, S.R. 2010. History of sea level and shoreline change in North Carolina. North Carolina sea level rise science forum, NC DENR and NC DECM, Morehead City, U.S.A., January 19, 2010.
Riggs, S.R., D.V. Ames, S.J. Culver, & D.J. Mallinson. 2011. The battle for North Carolina’s coasts. Univ. of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Riggs, S.R. et al. 2009. Eye of a human hurricane: Pea Island, Oregon Inlet, and Bodie Island, northern Outer Banks, North Carolina. In: America's most vulnerable coastal communities; eds. J.T. Kelly, O.H. Pilkey, & J.A.G. Cooper. Geol. Soc. America Spec. Pap. 460-04:43–72.
Robinson, L.G. (ed.). 2018. Natural Heritage Program list of the rare plants of North Carolina. North Carolina Natural Heritage Program, Raleigh, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Romero-González, G.A., Fernández-Concha, G.C., Dressler, R.L., Magrath, L.K., & G.W. Argus. 2002. Magnoliophyta: Liliidae: Liliales: Orchidaceae. Flora of North America. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Rondthaler, K. 1952. Flowering plants of Ocracoke Island. Unpubl. Bachelor's thesis, Reed College, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.
Saville, A.C. 2010. Delimiting species boundaries in the Dichanthelium dichotomum (L.) Gould complex. M.S. Thesis. North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Schafale, M.P. 2012. Classification of the natural communities of North Carolina, 4th approximation. North Carolina Natural Heritage Program. Raleigh, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Schilling, E.E. & K.C. Grubbs. 2016. Systematics of the Eupatorium mohrii complex (Asteraceae). Syst. Bot. 41(3).
Schroeder, P.M., R. Dolan, & B.P. Hayden. 1976. Vegetation changes associated with barrier-dune construction on the Outer Banks of North Carolina. Environm. Managem. 1–2:105–114.
Semple, J.C. & R.E. Cook. 2006. Magnioliophyta: Asteridae, part 6: Asteraceae: Solidago. Flora of North America. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Seney, E.E. M.J. Rowland, R.A. Lowery, R.B. Griffes, & M.M. McClure. 2013. Climate change, marine environments, and the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Conserv. Biol. 27:1138–1146.
SERNEC (Southeast Regional Network of Expertise and Collections). 2018. Online at sernecportal.org.
Sheviak, C.J. & P.M. Brown. 2002. Magnoliophyta: Liliidae: Liliales: Orchidaceae: Spiranthes. Flora of North America. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Sieren, D.J. 1981. The taxonomy of the genus Euthamia. Rhodora 83:551–579.
Siripun, K.C. & E.E. Schilling. 2006. Magnioliophyta: Asteridae, part 6: Asteraceae: Eupatorium. Flora of North America. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Smith, S.G. 2002a. Magnioliophyta: Commelinidae (in part): Cyperaceae: Bulboschoenus. Flora of North America. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Smith, S.G. 2002b. Magnioliophyta: Commelinidae (in part): Cyperaceae: Schoenoplectus. Flora of North America. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A
Smith, S.G., J.J. Bruhl, M.S. González-Elizondo, & F.J. Menapace. 2002. Magnioliophyta: Commelinidae (in part): Cyperaceae: Eleocharis. Flora of North America, vol. 23. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A
Sorrie, B.A. 2014a. An Inventory of the Natural Areas of Dare County, North Carolina. North Carolina Heritage Program, Division of Natural Resource Planning and Conservation, DENR, Raleigh, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Sorrie, B.A. 2014b. Noteworthy records form Dare and Tyrrell counties, North Carolina. Phytoneuron 2014-47:1–15.
Sorrie, B.A. 2014c. The maritime variant of Smilax bona-nox (Smilacaceae). Phytoneuron 16:1–3.
Sorrie, B.A. 2015. Magnoliophyta: Cistaceae: Crocanthemum. Flora of North America, vol. 6. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Sorrie, B.A. 2016. Reinstatement of Diodia harperi (Rubiaceae), a southeastern United States coastal plain endemic. Phytoneuron 2016-3:1–13.
Sorrie, B.A. 2018. Panicum virgatum var. spissum in the southeastern United States. J. Bot. Res. Inst. Texas 12:61–62.
Sorrie, B.A. & R.J. LeBlond. 2014. Eleocharis fallax (Cyperaceae): Recent collections and morphological comparison with E. ambigens and E. montevidensis. Phytoneuron 8:1–7.
Sorrie, B.A., R.J. LeBlond, & A.S. Weakley 2018. Reassessment of Oenothera fruticosa var. unguiculata (Onagraceae). J. Bot. Res. Inst. Texas 12:471–475.
Sorrie, B.A., T.E. Hippensteel, J.O. Larke, R.J. LeBlond, M.J. Russo, & B. Van Eerden. 1992. List of plants found on Shackleford Bank, Carteret County, North Carolina, U.S.A. [unpublished]
Sorrie, B.A. & A.S. Weakley. 2007a. Notes on Lechea maritima var. virginica (Cistaceae). J. Bot. Res. Inst. Texas 1:367–368.
Sorrie, B.A. & A.S. Weakley. 2007b. Recognition of Lechea pulchella var. ramosissima (Cistaceae). J. Bot. Res. Inst. Texas 1:369–371.
Stalter, R. & E.E. Lamont. 1997. Flora of North Carolina's Outer Banks, Ocracoke Island to Virginia. J. Torrey Bot. Soc. 124:71–88.
Stalter, R. & E.E. Lamont. 1999. Vascular flora of Cape Lookout National Seashore and Bogue Banks, North Carolina. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 115:213–235.
Stick, D. 1958. The Outer Banks of North Carolina. Univ. of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Stratton, A.C. 1943. Reclaiming the North Carolina "Banks": sand fences and plantings used to rehabilitate barrier beaches in proposed Hatteras National Seashore area. Shore and Beach, April 1943.
Stratus Consulting, Inc. 2010. Climate Change Impacts in the Southeastern United States; Draft Discussion Paper. Prepared for: Office of Air and Radiation, Climate Change Division, Region 4, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Washington, DC, U.S.A.
Stuckey, J.L. 1965. North Carolina: Its geology and mineral resources. Department of Conservation and Development, Raleigh, U.S.A.
Stucky, J.M. & E.C. Swab. 2005. Winter keys to common, wetland, trees, shrubs, and woody vines of the North Carolina Coastal Plain. Vulpia 4:68–93.
Sussman, K.R. & S.D. Heron, Jr. 1979. Evolution of a barrier island, Shackleford Banks, Carteret County, North Carolina. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 90:205–215.
Tant, P.L. 1992. Soil Survey of Dare County, North Carolina. USDA, Soil Conservation Service, U.S.A..
Tucker, G.C., B.G. Marcks, & J.R. Carter. 2002. Magnioliophyta: Commelinidae (in part): Cyperaceae: Cyperus. Flora of North America, vol. 23. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A
USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database / USDA NRCS. Wetland flora: Field office illustrated guide to plant species. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Washington, DC, U.S.A.
Usher, J.W., R.W. Tyndall, & G.F. Levy. 1978. Cyperus difformis (L.) a North Carolina state record, and additions to the flora of Dare County. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 94:177.
Van Der Valk, A.G. 1975. The floristic composition and structure of foredune plant communities of Cape Hatteras National Seashore. Chesapeake Sci. 16:115–126.
Vander Kloet, S.P. 2009. Magnoliophyta: Ericaceae: Vaccinium. Flora of North America, vol. 8. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Weakley, A.S. 2018. Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Weakley, A.S. & M.A. Bucher. 1992. Status Survey of seabeach amaranth (Amaranthus pumilus Rafinesque) in North and South Carolina. NC Plant Cons. Program and NC Endangered Species Field Office, Raleigh, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Weakley, A. S., J.C. Ludwig, J.F. Townsend, & B. Crowder 2012. Flora of Virginia. BRIT Press, Fort Worth, Texas, U.S.A.
Weaver, P.G., B.W. Williams, & E.M. Sadorf. 2018. A new record of the heart urchin Rhynobrissus cuneus (Spatangoida: Brissidae) from Buxton Beach, Dare County, North Carolina. S. E. Nat. (Steuben) 17/3:N34–N39.
Webster, D.W. 1988. The mammals of Nags Head Woods Ecological Preserve and surrounding areas. A.S.B. Bull. 35:223–239.
Wells, B.W. 1928. Plant communities of the coastal plain of North Carolina and their successional relations. Ecology 9:230–242.
Wells, B.W. 1939. A new forest climax: the salt spray climax of Smith Island, N.C. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 66:629–634.
Wentworth, T.R., M.P. Schafale, A.S. Weakley, R.K. Peet, P.S. White, & C.C. Frost. 1992. A preliminary classification of North Carolina barrier island forests. In: C.A. Cole & K. Turner, eds. Barrier Island Ecology of the Mid-Atlantic Coast: A Symposium. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A. Pp. 31–46.
Whitaker, J.D., J.W. McCord, P.P. Maier, A.L. Segars, M.L. Rekow, N. Shea, J. Ayers, & R. Browder. 2004. An ecological characterization of coastal hammock islands in South Carolina. Final Report to Ocean and Coastal Resources Management, South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control, U.S.A.
Wilbur, R.L. 1963. The leguminous plants of North Carolina. North Carolina Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 151:1–294.
Wood, G.W. 1981. Assessment of the impact of feral ungulates on the vegetation of Shackleford Banks, Cape Lookout National Seashore. Belle W. Baruch Forest Inst., Clemson University., Clemson, South Carolina, U.S.A.